Answer / n.s. sheiknoormohammed (d.c.e)

Masonry is the building of structures from individual units
laid in and bound together by mortar; the term masonry can
also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of
masonry construction are brick, stone such as marble,
granite, travertine, limestone; concrete block, glass block,
and tile. Masonry is generally a highly durable form of
construction. However, the materials used, the quality of
the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the
units are assembled can strongly affect the durability of
the overall masonry construction. Masonry units, such as
brick, tile, stone, glass brick or concrete block generally
conform to the requirements specified in the 2006
International Building Code (IBC) Section 2103. Masonry is
commonly used for the walls of buildings, retaining walls
and monuments. Brick and concrete block are the most common
types of masonry in use in industrialized nations and may be
either weight-bearing or a veneer.

Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer
various possibilities in masonry construction. They
generally provide great compressive strength, and are best
suited to structures with light transverse loading when the
cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with
concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement (typically
rebar) offers much greater tensile and lateral strength to
structures. Masonry boasts an impressive compressive
strength (vertical loads) but is much lower in tensile
strength (twisting or stretching) unless reinforced. The
tensile strength of masonry walls can be strengthened by
thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers (vertical
columns or ribs) at intervals. Where practical, steel
reinforcements can be added. A masonry veneer wall consists
of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on
one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually
constructed of wood or masonry.

In this context the brick masonry is primarily decorative,
not structural. The brick veneer is generally connected to
the structural wall by brick ties (metal strips that are
attached to the structural wall, as well as the mortar
joints of the brick veneer). There is typically an air gap
between the brick veneer and the structural wall. As
clay-based brick is usually not completely waterproof, the
structural wall will often have a water-resistant surface
(usually tar paper) and weep holes can be left at the base
of the brick veneer to drain moisture that accumulates
inside the air gap. Concrete blocks, real and cultured
stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very
similar veneer fashion. Most insulated buildings that
utilize concrete block, brick, adobe, stone, veneers or some
combination thereof feature interior insulation in the form
of fiberglass batts between wooden wall studs or in the form
of rigid insulation boards covered with plaster or drywall.
In most climates this insulation is much more effective on
the exterior of the wall, allowing the building interior to
take advantage of the aforementioned thermal mass of the
masonry.

This technique does, however, require some sort of
weather-resistant exterior surface over the insulation and,
consequently, is generally more expensive. The strength of a
masonry wall is not entirely dependent on the bond between
the building material and the mortar; the friction between
the interlocking blocks of masonry is often strong enough to
provide a great deal of strength on its own. The blocks
sometimes have grooves or other surface features added to
enhance this interlocking, and some dry set masonry
structures forego mortar altogether. Solid masonry, without
steel reinforcement, tends to have very limited applications
in modern wall construction. While such walls can be quite
economical and suitable in some applications, susceptibility
to earthquakes and collapse is a major issue. Solid
unreinforced masonry walls tend to be low and thick as a
consequence. Solid brickwork is made of two or more layers
of bricks with the units running horizontally (called
stretcher bricks) bound together with bricks running
transverse to the wall (called "header" bricks).

Each row of bricks is known as a course. The pattern of
headers and stretchers employed gives rise to different
bonds such as the common bond (with every sixth course
composed of headers), the English bond, and the Flemish bond
(with alternating stretcher and header bricks present on
every course). Bonds can differ in strength and in
insulating ability. Vertically staggered bonds tend to be
somewhat stronger and less prone to major cracking than a
non-staggered bond. The wide selection of brick styles and
types generally available in industrialized nations allow
much variety in the appearance of the final product. In
buildings built during the 1950s-1970s, a high degree of
uniformity of brick and accuracy in masonry was typical. In
the period since then this style was thought to be too
sterile, so attempts were made to emulate older, rougher work.

Some brick surfaces are made to look particularly rustic by
including burnt bricks, which have a darker color or an
irregular shape. Others may use antique salvage bricks, or
new bricks may be artificially aged by applying various
surface treatments, such as tumbling. The attempts at
rusticity of the late 20th century have been carried forward
by masons specializing in a free, artistic style, where the
courses are intentionally not straight, instead weaving to
form more organic impressions. A crinkle-crankle wall is a
brick wall that follows a serpentine path, rather than a
straight line. This type of wall is more resistant to
toppling than a straight wall; so much so that it may be
made of a single thickness of unreinforced brick and so
despite its longer length may be more economical than a
straight wall. Blocks of cinder concrete (cinder blocks or
breezeblocks), ordinary concrete (concrete blocks), or
hollow tile are generically known as Concrete Masonry Units
(CMU)s. They usually are much larger than ordinary bricks
and so are much faster to lay for a wall of a given size.

Furthermore, cinder and concrete blocks typically have much
lower water absorption rates than brick. They often are used
as the structural core for veneered brick masonry, or are
used alone for the walls of factories, garages and other
industrial style buildings where such appearance is
acceptable or desirable. Such blocks often receive a stucco
surface for decoration. Surface-bonding cement, which
contains synthetic fibers for reinforcement, is sometimes
used in this application and can impart extra strength to a
block wall. Surface-bonding cement is often pre-coloured and
can be stained or painted thus resulting in a finished
stucco-like surface. The primary structural advantage of
concrete blocks in comparison to smaller clay-based bricks
is that a CMU wall can be reinforced by filling the block
voids with concrete with or without steel rebar. Generally,
certain voids are designated for filling and reinforcement,
particularly at corners, wall-ends, and openings while other
voids are left empty.

This increases wall strength and stability more economically
than filling and reinforcing all voids. Typically,
structures made of CMUs will have the top course of blocks
in the walls filled with concrete and tied together with
steel reinforcement to form a bond beam. Bond beams are
often a requirement of modern building codes and controls .
Another type of steel reinforcement, referred to as
ladder-reinforcement, can also be embedded in horizontal
mortar joints of concrete block walls. The introduction of
steel reinforcement generally results in a CMU wall having
much greater lateral and tensile strength than unreinforced
walls. CMUs can be manufactured to provide a variety of
surface appearances. They can be colored during
manufacturing or stained or painted after installation.

They can be split as part of the manufacturing process,
giving the blocks a rough face replicating the appearance of
natural stone, such as brownstone. CMUs may also be scored,
ribbed, sandblasted, polished, striated (raked or brushed),
include decorative aggregates, be allowed to slump in a
controlled fashion during curing, or include several of
these techniques in their manufacture to provide a
decorative appearance. "Glazed concrete masonry units are
manufactured by bonding a permanent colored facing
(typically composed of polyester resins, silica sand and
various other chemicals) to a concrete masonry unit,
providing a smooth impervious surface. " Glass block or
glass brick are blocks made from glass and provide a
translucent to clear vision through the block. A-jacks (used
in erosion control walls and sea walls) are highly stable,
concrete 6-pronged armor units designed to interlock into a
flexible, highly permeable matrix. They can be installed
either randomly or in a uniform pattern. They look like
giant 3-foot versions of the metal jacks that children play
with.

In the uniform placement pattern, each unit is in contact
with the six adjacent units, providing high stability. They
are patterned after the buckyball model. Stone blocks used
in masonry can be dressed or rough. Stone masonry utilizing
dressed stones is known as ashlar masonry, whereas masonry
using irregularly shaped stones is known as rubble masonry.
Both rubble and ashlar masonry can be laid in courses (rows
of even height) through the careful selection or cutting of
stones, but a great deal of stone masonry is uncoursed.
Natural stone veneers over CMU, cast-in-place, or tilt-up
concrete walls are widely used to give the appearance of
stone masonry. Sometimes river rock (smooth oval-shaped
stones) is used as a veneer.

This type of material is not favored for solid masonry as it
requires a great amount of mortar and can lack intrinsic
structural strength. Manufactured-stone, or cultured stone,
veneers are popular alternatives to natural stones.
Attractive natural stone has become more expensive in many
areas and in some areas is practically unavailable.
Manufactured-stone veneers are typically made from concrete.
Natural stones from quarries around the world are sampled
and recreated using molds, aggregate, and colorfast
pigments. To the casual observer there may be no visual
difference between veneers of natural and manufactured
stone. Gabions are rectangular wire baskets, usually of
zinc-protected steel (galvanized steel) that are filled with
fractured stone of medium size.

These will act as a single unit and are stacked with
setbacks to form a revetment or retaining wall. They have
the advantage of being both well drained and flexible, and
so resistant to flood, water flow from above, frost damage,
and soil flow. Their expected useful life is only as long as
the wire they are composed of and if used in severe climates
(such as shore-side in a salt water environment) must be
made of appropriate corrosion-resistant wire. A low grade
concrete may be placed in woven plastic sacks similar to
that used for sandbags and then emplaced. The sacks are then
watered and the emplacement then becomes a series of
artificial stones that conform to one another and to
adjacent soil and structures. This conformation makes them
resistant to displacement. The sack becomes non-functional
and eventually disintegrates.

This type of masonry is frequently used to protect the
entrances and exits of water conduits where a road passes
over a stream or dry wash. It is also used to protect stream
banks from erosion, especially where a road passes close by.
Stonemasonry is one of the oldest professions in the history
of construction. As such it is regarded as a traditional
skill, and is one which is in heavy demand. Prospective
stonemasons will learn the profession through
apprenticeships or a traineeship that will last 3 to 4
years. There are City & Guilds stonemasonry courses
available that combine college based theory training with
practical learning. Masonry walls have an endothermic effect
of its hydrates, as in chemically bound water, as well as
unbound moisture from the concrete block, as well as the
poured concrete if the hollow cores inside the blocks are
filled.

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