Answer / denny abraham

There is no consensus on a definition of urban poverty but
two broad complementary approaches are prevalent: economic
and anthropological interpretations. Conventional economic
definitions use income2 or consumption complemented by a
range of other social indicators such as life expectancy,
infant mortality, nutrition, the proportion of the household
budget spent on food, literacy, school enrolment rates,
access to health clinics or drinking water, to classify poor
groups against a common index of material welfare.
Alternative interpretations developed largely by rural
anthropologists and social planners working with rural
communities in the third world allow for local variation in
the meaning of poverty, and expand the definition to
encompass perceptions of non-material deprivation and social
differentiation (Wratten 1995; Satterthwaite 1995a).
Anthropological studies of poverty have shown that people’s
own conceptions of disadvantage often differ from those of
professional experts. Great value is attached to qualitative
dimensions More generally, there has been a widening of the
debates on poverty to include more subjective definitions
such as vulnerability, entitlement and social exclusion.
These concepts have been useful for analysing what increases
the risk of poverty and the underlying reasons why people
remain in poverty. Vulnerability is not synonymous with
poverty, but refers to defencelessness, insecurity and
exposure to risk, shocks and stress. Vulnerability is
reduced by assets, such as: human investment in health and
education; productive assets including houses and domestic
equipment; access to community infrastructure; stores of
money, jewellery and gold; and claims on other households,
patrons, the government and international community for
resources at times of need (Chambers 1995, cited by Wratten
1995). Entitlement refers to the complex ways in which
individuals or households command resources which vary
between people over time in response to shocks and long-term
trends. Social exclusion is seen as a state of ill-being and
disablement or disempowerment, inability which individuals
and groups experience. It is manifest in ‘patterns of social
relationships in which individuals and groups are denied
access to goods, services, activities and resources which
are associated with citizenship’ (ILO 1996).

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